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  The Philip E. Lilienthal imprint honors special books in commemoration of a man whose work at University of California Press from 1954 to 1979 was marked by dedication to young authors and to high standards in the field of Asian Studies. Friends, family, authors, and foundations have together endowed the Lilienthal Fund, which enables UC Press to publish under this imprint selected books in a way that reflects the taste and judgment of a great and beloved editor.

  The publisher gratefully acknowledges the generous support of the Philip E. Lilienthal Asian Studies Endowment Fund of the University of California Press Foundation, which was established by a major gift from Sally Lilienthal.

  Hanoi’s Road to the

  Vietnam War, 1954–1965

  FROM INDOCHINA TO VIETNAM: REVOLUTION AND WAR IN A GLOBAL PERSPECTIVE

  Edited by Fredrik Logevall and Christopher E. Goscha

  Assuming the Burden: Europe and the American Commitment to War in Vietnam, by Mark Atwood Lawrence

  Indochina: An Ambiguous Colonization, 1858–1954, by Pierre Brocheux and Daniel Hémery

  Vietnam 1946: How the War Began, by Stein Tønnesson

  Imperial Heights: Dalat and the Making and Undoing of French Indochina, by Eric T. Jennings

  Catholic Vietnam: A Church from Empire to Nation, by Charles Keith

  Vietnam: State, War, and Revolution, 1945–1946, by David G, Marr

  Hanoi’s Road to the Vietnam War, 1954–1965, by Pierre Asselin

  Hanoi’s Road to the

  Vietnam War, 1954–1965

  Pierre Asselin

  UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA PRESS

  BerkeleyLos AngelesLondon

  University of California Press, one of the most distinguished university presses in the United States, enriches lives around the world by advancing scholarship in the humanities, social sciences, and natural sciences. Its activities are supported by the UC Press Foundation and by philanthropic contributions from individuals and institutions. For more information, visit www.ucpress.edu.

  University of California Press

  Berkeley and Los Angeles, California

  University of California Press, Ltd.

  London, England

  © 2013 by The Regents of the University of California

  Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

  Asselin, Pierre, author.

  Hanoi’s road to the Vietnam War, 1954–1965 / Pierre Asselin.

  p.cm.—(From Indochina to Vietnam : revolution and war in a global perspective ; 7)

  Includes bibliographical references and index.

  ISBN 978-0-520-27612-3 (cloth : alk. paper)

  ISBN 978-0-520-95655-1 (ebook)

  1. Vietnam (Democratic Republic)—History.2. Vietnam (Democratic Republic)—Foreign relations.3. Vietnam War, 1961–1975—Causes.I. Title.

  DS560.68.A872013

  959.704’31—dc232013015154

  Manufactured in the United States of America

  21 20 19 18 17 16 15 14 13

  10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

  In keeping with a commitment to support environmentally responsible and sustainable printing practices, UC Press has printed this book on Rolland Enviro100, a 100% postconsumer fiber paper that is FSC certified, deinked, processed chlorine-free, and manufactured with renewable biogas energy. It is acid-free and EcoLogo certified.

  For my father

  CONTENTS

  List of Maps

  Foreword by the Series Editors

  Acknowledgments

  Glossary of Terms and Acronyms

  Introduction

  1.Choosing Peace, 1954–1956

  2.Changing Course, 1957–1959

  3.Treading Cautiously, 1960

  4.Buying Time, 1961

  5.Exploring Neutralization, 1962

  6.Choosing War, 1963

  7.Waging War, 1964

  Epilogue

  Notes

  Bibliography

  Index

  Images

  MAPS

  1.Indochina, 1954–1975

  2.North Vietnam, 1954–1975

  3.South Vietnam, 1954–1975

  FOREWORD BY THE SERIES EDITORS

  The literature on the Second Indochina War is large and growing larger. Until recently, however, the literature suffered from a U.S.-centric focus and a tendency to look solely at decision-making in Washington. To paraphrase historian Gaddis Smith’s classic description of Cold War historiography, it was the history of “one hand clapping.” Too few studies placed U.S. policymaking into its wider international context; fewer still gave a voice to the “other side,” the Vietnamese who fought so long and hard to defeat first the French and then the South Vietnamese government and its American allies.

  But the picture is changing, as scholars with the requisite linguistic skills begin to work in depth in Vietnamese archival and other materials, as well as in voluminous French- and English-language sources. Pierre Asselin knows these materials as well as anyone, having mined them for several pathbreaking studies over the past decade. Now Asselin gives us Hanoi’s Road to the Vietnam War , 1954–1965 , the first detailed scholarly assessment of the subject ever published in English. It is a penetrating, lucid, and compelling study of the period between the end of the First Indochina War and the large-scale escalation of the Second.

  Other authors writing in English have examined North Vietnamese decision-making in this vital period. Few, however, have done so in the kind of detail—and using the wide array of primary sources—that Asselin does here. This book shows how Hanoi leaders viewed the evolving situation in the late 1950s and early 1960s, not merely in South Vietnam but also in the Cold War power centers of Washington, Moscow, and Beijing. In Asselin’s telling, the North Vietnamese were never puppets of the Soviet Union and China; for the most part, they were able to make autonomous decisions during the period in question. More than that, North Vietnamese planners at times “exercised more leverage over their allies than the allies exercised over them.” Gradually, and despite sharp internal differences of opinion, policymakers in Hanoi shifted from a cautious strategy focused on non-violent political struggle to what Asselin sees as a “risky, even reckless” approach centered on resumption of military action. They never wanted war with the United States, he maintains, but they were determined to have what war would bring them: the reunification of the country under their control.

  In telling this story the author adds much to the understanding of one of the most important conflicts of the twentieth century. It is with pleasure that we include his study in our series.

  Christopher Goscha, Université du Québec à Montréal

  Fredrik Logevall, Cornell University

  ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

  I wish to thank the manuscript’s reviewers for their thoughtful comments. The anonymous reviewer provided useful suggestions for improvement. The other reviewer, Lien-Hang Nguyen, offered equally constructive advice. Hang is arguably the most capable among the latest generation of Vietnam War scholars. She has always been generous with her time, expertise, and source material. It is a blessing to have her as an academic nemesis, and a joy to be her friend.

  Fredrik Logevall and Christopher Goscha, the editors of the “From Indochina toVietnam” series at the University of California Press, also offered valuable guidance. Fred urged me to address the international context more diligently and shared the proofs of his latest manuscript (now published as Embers of War ) to help me refine core arguments. Chris, for his part, scrupulously examined the manuscript. His consummate knowledge of Vietnamese history improved its quality in ways I cannot describe. Pierre Journ
oud, “Pierre 1,” presented me with opportunities to share my research with colleagues and solicit feedback. I thank him for that, as well as for his hospitality in Paris and his friendship.

  I am fortunate to be part of a coterie of scholars who not only have contributed in meaningful ways to our understanding of the Cold War and Vietnam’s place in it but also became dear friends over the years. In addition to those already mentioned, I wish to acknowledge Ben Kerkvliet, Jim Hershberg, Pierre Grosser, John Prados, Larry Berman, Marc Gilbert, Lorenz Lüthi, Ed Miller, Jessica Chapman, Pete Zinoman, Balazs Szalontai, Jason Picard, Jay Veith, Mark Moyar, Marilyn Young, and Harish Metha. They are a big part of the reason I enjoy what I do; they have also made professional conferences interesting on so many levels.

  I have benefited from the wisdom of other colleagues in putting this project together, including William Duiker, Carl Thayer, Odd Arne Westad, Bill Turley, Ed Moïse, Mark Lawrence, Jeff Kimball, George Herring, Bob Brigham, Hue-Tam Tai, Merle Pribbenow, Jacques Portes, Shawn McHale, Tuong Vu, Nu-Anh Tran, Alec Holcombe, David Anderson, Piero Gleijeses, Kyle Horst, Calvin Thai, Liam Kelley, Sergei Radchenko, Matthew Connelly, Ang Cheng Guan, David Elliott, Sophie Quinn-Judge, Martin Grossheim, Qiang Zhai, Chen Jian, Patrick Bratton, and Ilya Gaiduk, whose untimely death hurt us all in more ways than one. My graduate students at Hawaii Pacific University have also helped me immeasurably. Special thanks to Gintare Janulaityte, Ed Zelczak, Nate Chase, Paul Carlock, Mark Snakenberg, Kevin O’Reilly, Jenya Jawad, and Joshua Taylor. Emily McIlroy provided thoughtful input on the title.

  I am indebted to several people in Vietnam for their assistance over the years. Professor Phan Huy Le has sponsored my work there for nearly two decades. Nguyen Van Kim, Hoang Anh Tuan, and Nguyen Quang Ngoc have been extraordinary colleagues. Along with my friends Nhung and Phu and the late Nguyen Dinh Phuong, these individuals have made me look forward to each trip to their amazing country. “Chu Dinh,” “em Thang,” and the rest of the staff at Vietnam National Archives Center 3 in Hanoi have always been accommodating and patient with me. Only Christian Lentz and I know how truly helpful they can be, and how well they can dance.

  Several organizations and their staff were indispensable. I owe a special debt of gratitude to the Cold War International History Project and its director, Christian Ostermann; to the Vietnam Center and Archive at Texas Tech University and its director, Steve Maxner; to the Vietnam Studies Group and its contributors; to the Institut Pierre Mendès France in Paris, its president Eric Roussell, and his assistants Murielle Blondeau and Vincent Laniol; and to the staff at the French Diplomatic Archives at La Courneuve, the National Archives of the United Kingdom in Kew, and Library and Archives Canada in Ottawa. For generous financial support, I am indebted to the National Endowment for the Humanities, the Hawaii Council for the Humanities, and, above all, to Dr. Alan Zeccha and the Trustees’ Scholarly Endeavors Program at Hawaii Pacific University.

  At the University of California Press, my appreciation goes to Niels Hooper for betting on this project and to his assistant, Kim Hogeland. Profuse thanks to my conscientious editor, Suzanne Knott. Elizabeth Berg did a superb copyediting job, and promptly answered all my queries as I revised the final draft. Susan Ferber recommended that I send the manuscript to Niels, and Chuck Grench of the University of North Carolina Press provided useful guidance early on.

  For allowing me to retain my sanity as I put this book together, I thank my friend, Eric Denton. His insights on the meaning of life have been invaluable, as have his humor and high tolerance for alcohol. My gratitude extends to the crew from stand-up paddling, as well as to Mitch Gray and the “boys” from the Hawaiian Ice Hockey League in Honolulu. Luckily for me, the latter are much better friends than they are hockey players. Pierre-Marie, I never forget that you look out for me.

  My former professors continue to help and inspire me. Yves Frennette from Glendon College made me want to become a university professor. John Keyes and Tom Tynan formed me in my younger years. Tim Naftali, Gary Hess, Truong Buu Lam, Ronald Pruessen, Hy Van Luong, and the late Huynh Kim Khanh opened my eyes to important realities of Vietnamese and Cold War history. Stephen O’Harrow of the University of Hawaii has been a surrogate father. Idus Newby, now retired from “UH,” has meticulously read and commented on all my major publications. I know of no academic more generous with their time and expertise. His astonishing editing skills substantially improved the readability and overall quality of the narrative that follows. “Dr. Newby” has also been unwavering in his support for my scholarly endeavors. I hope that through my research and teaching I have done justice to all that he and other educators have imparted to me.

  My parents and my little sister have been an outstanding support system. I thank my mother and my father for their infectious passion for life; words cannot describe the love, respect, and admiration I have for them. My sister, the kindest human being I know, is always there when I need her (unless she has fainted). I hope this book makes her proud of her big brother; it is the least I can offer, considering how proud I am of the person she has become.

  Lastly, I wish to thank my family, Selma and Grace. Selma, you understand me like few people do. You took good care of Grace when I was away researching for this book, and you were at my side, literally, as I put the finishing touches on it. It should not have been that way; I should have done a better job taking care of you, providing for you. You are, after all, a cat. I look forward to spending time at your side, when we reunite over the rainbow bridge. My wife Grace has for years nurtured my passion for Vietnam and tolerated my obsession with this project. Her virtues are without parallel. Grace, you scintillate as brilliantly as ever, and my love for you has only grown stronger over the years. Much of what I have become, the good part, and what I have achieved, the best things, I owe to you. You are exceptional in every way; I am so glad you are you. I am in your debt, eternally.

  I dedicate this book to my father, for his unconditional love and support throughout the years. He is the best man I know.

  GLOSSARY OF TERMS AND ACRONYMS

  ARVN Army of the Republic of Vietnam; formerly the Vietnamese National Army; armed forces of the RVN

  CCP Chinese Communist Party

  COSVN Central Office (Directorate) for Southern Vietnam; Politburo-run organ in charge of coordinating communist activity in the southern third of Vietnam (former Cochinchina), 1951–54 (including all of Cambodia) and 1961–75; “upgraded” incarnation of the Nam Bo Executive Committee

  CPSU Communist Party of the Soviet Union

  DRV/DRVN Democratic Republic of Vietnam; government of northern Vietnam, controlled by the VWP and based in Hanoi from October 1954; claimed sole jurisdiction over all of Vietnam

  GPD General Political Department; organ in charge of ideological conformity within the PAVN

  ICP Indochinese Communist Party; previous incarnation of the VWP; founded in 1930

  ICSC International Commission for Supervision and Control in Vietnam; organ consisting of representatives from India, Canada, and Poland set up after July 1954 to supervise implementation of the Geneva accords

  Interzone IV Northern central Vietnam, including a portion below the seventeenth parallel

  Interzone V Southern central Vietnam, including the Central Highlands

  MAAG Military Assistance Advisory Group, Indochina (1950–55), Vietnam (1955–62); created to promote military partnership between the United States and France and the SOVN/RVN; incorporated into MACV and renamed Field Advisory Element, Vietnam, in 1962

  MACV Military Assistance Command, Vietnam; U.S. military command in South Vietnam, 1962–73

  Nam Bo Executive Politburo-run organ coordinating communist activity in

  Committee the southern third of Vietnam (former Cochinchina), 1954–61; “downgraded” incarnation of COSVN

  NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organization; United States–led organization for collective defense in Europe and North America, 1949–present

&nbs
p; NLF National Front for the Liberation of South Vietnam; southern Vietnamese broad-based umbrella organization created in 1960 and controlled by Hanoi to oppose the RVN

  PAVN People’s Army of Vietnam; armed forces of the DRVN controlled by the VWP

  PCSVN Party Committee of South Vietnam; southern branch of the VWP to 1962

  PLAF People’s Liberation Armed Forces; armed wing of the NLF

  PRC People’s Republic of China

  PRP People’s Revolutionary Party, formerly the PCSVN; ostensibly an independent southern Vietnamese communist party established in 1962, in actuality part of the VWP

  RVN Republic of Vietnam, formerly the SOVN; proclaimed in October 1955 by President Ngo Dinh Diem from its capital at Saigon; claimed sole jurisdiction over all of Vietnam

  SEATO Southeast Asia Treaty Organization; United States–led organization for collective defense in Southeast Asia, 1955–77

  SOVN State of Vietnam; purportedly independent Vietnamese government organized by France in 1949 under Emperor Bao Dai as head of state; became the RVN in 1955

  VFF Vietnam Fatherland Front; mass organization promoting national unity, loyalty to the DRVN and VWP, and resistance to foreign aggression and internal subversion in the DRVN

  Viet Cong/VC Pejorative term used in reference to southern communists and their sympathizers, including, after 1960, members of the NLF; abbreviated form of either Viet Nam Cong san (Vietnamese Communist) or Viet minh Cong san (Viet Minh Communist)

  Viet Minh United front organized in 1941 by the ICP to fight the Japanese occupation of Indochina; served as the main nationalist front in the war against the French between 1946 and 1951, when it was officially dissolved and became part of the Lien Viet Front; blanket term used in reference to those who fought against the French during the Indochina War (1946–54)